The Burden of Voting in the 2019 Canadian Federal Election

Appendix F

Table 1: The turnout gap among Indigenous people on or off reserves
(OLS estimations)
Certain to Vote	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
Indigenous on reserve	-0.252***	-0.195***	-0.166***	-0.137***	-0.099**
Indigenous on reserve	(0.025)	(0.024)	(0.022)	(0.021)	(0.032)
Indigenous off reserve	-0.065***	-0.035***	-0.027***	-0.016*	-0.020
Indigenous off reserve	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.010)
18-24	-	-0.103***	-0.102***	-0.050***	-0.050***
18-24	-	(0.009)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)
25-34	-	-0.049***	-0.040***	-0.017**	-0.017**
25-34	-	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
35-44	-	-0.033***	-0.024***	-0.017***	-0.017***
35-44	-	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
55-64	-	0.051***	0.019***	0.012*	0.012*
55-64	-	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)
65+	-	0.090***	0.029***	0.017*	0.017*
65+	-	(0.008)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Female	-	-0.019***	0.012***	0.015***	0.015***
Female	-	(0.004)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)
Other Language	-	-0.007	0.012	0.011	0.010
Other Language	-	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Foreign Born	-	-0.059***	-0.050***	-0.043***	-0.043***
Foreign Born	-	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Prairies	-	0.033***	0.027***	0.024***	0.024***
Prairies	-	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
BC	-	-0.001	0.006	0.010	0.010
BC	-	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Atlantic	-	-0.022**	0.002	0.000	0.000
Atlantic	-	(0.008)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Territories	-	-0.063**	-0.048*	-0.052*	-0.052*
Territories	-	(0.023)	(0.021)	(0.020)	(0.020)
Quebec	-	-0.002	0.015**	0.018***	0.018***
Quebec	-	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Low Education	-	-0.087***	-0.043***	-0.039***	-0.039***
Low Education	-	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
High Education	-	0.040***	0.004	0.004	0.004
High Education	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Low Income	-	-0.061***	-0.034***	-0.018**	-0.018**
Low Income	-	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)
High Income	-	0.043***	0.019***	0.013***	0.013***
High Income	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Unemployed	-	-0.050***	-0.037***	-0.029**	-0.029**
Unemployed	-	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Student	-	0.031**	0.010	0.016	0.016
Student	-	(0.012)	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Retired	-	0.004	0.005	0.006	0.006
Retired	-	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
Caregiver	-	-0.061***	-0.041***	-0.036***	-0.037***
Caregiver	-	(0.012)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Other	-	-0.030**	-0.035***	-0.013	-0.013
Other	-	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Not Married	-	-0.027***	-0.022***	-0.019***	-0.019***
Not Married	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Moved	-	-0.033***	-0.031***	-0.010*	-0.010*
Moved	-	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Interest in Politics	-	-	0.331***	0.268***	0.268***
Interest in Politics	-	-	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Duty	-	-	0.243***	0.218***	0.218***
Duty	-	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Party ID	-	-	0.068***	0.039***	0.039***
Party ID	-	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Register	-	-	-	-0.126***	-0.124***
Register	-	-	-	(0.006)	(0.006)
Decision	-	-	-	-0.040***	-0.040***
Decision	-	-	-	(0.002)	(0.002)
Polling Station	-	-	-	-0.083***	-0.085***
Polling Station	-	-	-	(0.003)	(0.003)
Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-0.051***	-0.050***
Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	(0.004)	(0.004)
Indigenous on reserve # Register	-	-	-	-	0.015
Indigenous on reserve # Register	-	-	-	-	(0.049)
Indigenous off reserve # Register	-	-	-	-	-0.027
Indigenous off reserve # Register	-	-	-	-	(0.020)
Indigenous on reserve # Decision	-	-	-	-	0.049
Indigenous on reserve # Decision	-	-	-	-	(0.027)
Indigenous off reserve # Decision	-	-	-	-	-0.008
Indigenous off reserve # Decision	-	-	-	-	(0.008)
Indigenous on reserve # Polling Station	-	-	-	-	-0.026
Indigenous on reserve # Polling Station	-	-	-	-	(0.033)
Indigenous off reserve # Polling Station	-	-	-	-	0.023
Indigenous off reserve # Polling Station	-	-	-	-	(0.013)
Indigenous on reserve # Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-	-0.108**
Indigenous on reserve # Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-	(0.033)
Indigenous off reserve # Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-	0.012
Indigenous off reserve # Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-	(0.014)
Constant	0.835***	0.847***	0.397***	0.547***	0.547***
Constant	(0.002)	(0.006)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)
Observations	39284	39284	39284	39284	39284
R²	0.004	0.069	0.239	0.296	0.296

Standard errors in parentheses
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

Table 2: The turnout gap among people with different levels of disability
(OLS estimations)
Certain to Vote	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
Moderate Disability	-0.060***	-0.043***	-0.032***	-0.013***	-0.003
Moderate Disability	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.006)
Severe Disability	-0.151***	-0.099***	-0.074***	-0.030***	-0.019*
Severe Disability	(0.007)	(0.008)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.010)
18-24	-	-0.100***	-0.099***	-0.048***	-0.048***
18-24	-	(0.009)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)
25-34	-	-0.053***	-0.043***	-0.019***	-0.019***
25-34	-	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
35-44	-	-0.036***	-0.026***	-0.018***	-0.018***
35-44	-	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
55-64	-	0.047***	0.016**	0.010	0.010
55-64	-	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)
65+	-	0.082***	0.024***	0.014*	0.013
65+	-	(0.008)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Female	-	-0.016***	0.014***	0.016***	0.016***
Female	-	(0.004)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)
Racial Minority	-	-0.063***	-0.051***	-0.041***	-0.042***
Racial Minority	-	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Other Language	-	0.006	0.022*	0.019	0.019
Other Language	-	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Foreign Born	-	-0.039***	-0.034***	-0.029***	-0.029***
Foreign Born	-	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Prairies	-	0.032***	0.027***	0.024***	0.024***
Prairies	-	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
BC	-	-0.003	0.005	0.009	0.009
BC	-	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Atlantic	-	-0.026***	-0.002	-0.002	-0.002
Atlantic	-	(0.008)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Territories	-	-0.067**	-0.051*	-0.053**	-0.053**
Territories	-	(0.023)	(0.021)	(0.020)	(0.020)
Quebec	-	-0.009	0.009*	0.015***	0.014***
Quebec	-	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Low Education	-	-0.083***	-0.040***	-0.038***	-0.038***
Low Education	-	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
High Education	-	0.036***	0.001	0.003	0.003
High Education	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Low Income	-	-0.047***	-0.024***	-0.014*	-0.013*
Low Income	-	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
High Income	-	0.036***	0.013***	0.010**	0.010**
High Income	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Unemployed	-	-0.041***	-0.030**	-0.026**	-0.026**
Unemployed	-	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Student	-	0.032**	0.011	0.017	0.017
Student	-	(0.012)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Retired	-	0.009	0.009	0.007	0.007
Retired	-	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
Caregiver	-	-0.056***	-0.037***	-0.036***	-0.036***
Caregiver	-	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Other	-	0.003	-0.010	-0.003	-0.003
Other	-	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Not Married	-	-0.024***	-0.020***	-0.018***	-0.017***
Not Married	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Moved	-	-0.032***	-0.030***	-0.011*	-0.011*
Moved	-	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Interest in Politics	-	-	0.327***	0.267***	0.267***
Interest in Politics	-	-	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Duty	-	-	0.242***	0.218***	0.218***
Duty	-	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Party ID	-	-	0.068***	0.039***	0.039***
Party ID	-	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Register	-	-	-	-0.125***	-0.121***
Register	-	-	-	(0.006)	(0.008)
Decision	-	-	-	-0.040***	-0.036***
Decision	-	-	-	(0.002)	(0.002)
Polling Station	-	-	-	-0.082***	-0.084***
Polling Station	-	-	-	(0.003)	(0.004)
Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-0.049***	-0.047***
Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	(0.004)	(0.005)
Moderate Disability # Register	-	-	-	-	-0.022
Moderate Disability # Register	-	-	-	-	(0.012)
Moderate Disability # Decision	-	-	-	-	-0.009*
Moderate Disability # Decision	-	-	-	-	(0.004)
Moderate Disability # Polling Station	-	-	-	-	0.002
Moderate Disability # Polling Station	-	-	-	-	(0.008)
Moderate Disability # Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-	-0.002
Moderate Disability # Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-	(0.008)
Severe Disability # Register	-	-	-	-	0.019
Severe Disability # Register	-	-	-	-	(0.016)
Severe Disability # Decision	-	-	-	-	-0.016*
Severe Disability # Decision	-	-	-	-	(0.006)
Severe Disability # Polling Station	-	-	-	-	0.010
Severe Disability # Polling Station	-	-	-	-	(0.009)
Severe Disability # Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-	-0.006
Severe Disability # Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-	(0.011)
Constant	0.855***	0.873***	0.421***	0.558***	0.555***
Constant	(0.002)	(0.007)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)
Observations	39283	39283	39283	39283	39283
R²	0.013	0.077	0.243	0.297	0.298

Standard errors in parentheses
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

Table 3: The turnout gap among those who have never voted before (OLS estimations)
Certain to Vote	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
New Canadians	-0.136***	-0.089*	-0.073*	-0.054	-0.056
New Canadians	(0.041)	(0.040)	(0.037)	(0.036)	(0.057)
First-time electors (aged 18–21)	-0.124***	-0.033*	-0.038**	-0.026*	-0.004
First-time electors (aged 18–21)	(0.012)	(0.014)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.020)
Abstainer	-0.520***	-0.434***	-0.297***	-0.228***	-0.228***
Abstainer	(0.009)	(0.010)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.015)
18-24	-	-0.028**	-	-0.015	-0.014
	-	-	-0.046***	-	-
	-	(0.010)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
25-34	-	-	-	-0.012*	-0.012*
	-	-0.035***	-0.031***	-	-
	-	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
35-44	-	-	-0.017**	-0.013*	-0.013*
	-	-0.023***	-	-	-
	-	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
55-64	-	0.043***	0.016**	0.010	0.010
55-64	-	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
65+	-	0.075***	0.023***	0.013	0.013
65+	-	(0.008)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Female	-	-	0.010**	0.015***	0.014***
	-	-0.018***	-	-	-
	-	(0.004)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)
Racial Minority	-	-	-	-	-
	-	-0.056***	-0.047***	-0.038***	-0.038***
	-	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Other Language	-	0.017	0.028**	0.024*	0.024*
Other Language	-	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Foreign Born	-	-0.015**	-	-	-
	-	-	-0.017***	-0.019***	-0.019***
	-	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Prairies	-	0.032***	0.027***	0.023***	0.023***
Prairies	-	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.004)
BC	-	-0.003	0.004	0.009	0.008
BC	-	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Atlantic	-	-0.025**	-0.003	-0.004	-0.004
Atlantic	-	(0.008)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Territories	-	-0.071**	-0.055**	-0.056**	-0.056**
Territories	-	(0.023)	(0.021)	(0.020)	(0.020)
Quebec	-	-0.006	0.011*	0.015***	0.015***
Quebec	-	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Low Education	-	-	-	-	-
	-	-0.066***	-0.031***	-0.031***	-0.031***
	-	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
High Education	-	0.034***	0.003	0.003	0.003
High Education	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Low Income	-	-	-	-0.016**	-0.016**
	-	-0.053***	-0.031***	-	-
	-	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)
High Income	-	0.038***	0.017***	0.012**	0.011**
High Income	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Unemployed	-	-	-0.029**	-0.024**	-0.024**
	-	-0.037***	-	-	-
	-	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Student	-	0.032**	0.013	0.018	0.016
Student	-	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Retired	-	0.004	0.005	0.006	0.006
Retired	-	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
Caregiver	-	-	-	-	-
	-	-0.052***	-0.036***	-0.034***	-0.034***
	-	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Other	-	-0.030**	-	-0.015	-0.014
	-	-	-0.035***	-	-
	-	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Not Married	-	-	-	-	-
	-	-0.026***	-0.022***	-0.019***	-0.019***
	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Moved	-	-	-	-0.010*	-0.010*
	-	-0.027***	-0.027***	-	-
	-	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Interest in Politics	-	-	0.309***	0.255***	0.254***
Interest in Politics	-	-	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Duty	-	-	0.226***	0.208***	0.207***
Duty	-	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Party ID	-	-	0.064***	0.037***	0.038***
Party ID	-	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Register	-	-	-	-0.094***	-0.109***
Register	-	-	-	(0.006)	(0.007)
Decision	-	-	-	-0.040***	-0.038***
Decision	-	-	-	(0.002)	(0.002)
Polling Station	-	-	-	-0.081***	-0.083***
Polling Station	-	-	-	(0.003)	(0.003)
Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-0.046***	-0.044***
Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	(0.003)	(0.004)
New Canadians # Register	-	-	-	-	0.076
New Canadians # Register	-	-	-	-	(0.124)
First-time electors (aged 18–21) # Register	-	-	-	-	0.036
First-time electors (aged 18–21) # Register	-	-	-	-	(0.021)
Abstainer # Register	-	-	-	-	0.048***
Abstainer # Register	-	-	-	-	(0.014)
New Canadians # Decision	-	-	-	-	-0.018
New Canadians # Decision	-	-	-	-	(0.040)
First-time electors (aged 18–21) # Decision	-	-	-	-	0.010
First-time electors (aged 18–21) # Decision	-	-	-	-	(0.012)
Abstainer # Decision	-	-	-	-	-
	-	-	-	-	-0.043***
	-	-	-	-	(0.008)
New Canadians # Polling Station	-	-	-	-	-0.005
New Canadians # Polling Station	-	-	-	-	(0.066)
First-time electors (aged 18–21) # Polling Station	-	-	-	-	-0.008
	-	-	-	-	-
	-	-	-	-	(0.017)
Abstainer # Polling Station	-	-	-	-	0.030*
Abstainer # Polling Station	-	-	-	-	(0.012)
New Canadians # Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-	0.038
New Canadians # Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-	(0.077)
First-time electors (aged 18–21) # Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-	-
	-	-	-	-	-0.087***
	-	-	-	-	(0.018)
Abstainer # Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-	0.024
Abstainer # Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-	(0.014)
Constant	0.854***	0.861***	0.438***	0.571***	0.572***
Constant	(0.002)	(0.006)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)
Observations	39191	39191	39191	39191	39191
R²	0.076	0.118	0.261	0.308	0.310

Standard errors in parentheses
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

Table 4: The turnout gap among NEET (OLS estimations)
Certain to Vote	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
NEET	-0.214***	-0.049**	-0.033*	-0.031*	-0.016
NEET	(0.014)	(0.017)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.021)
18-24	-	-0.094***	-0.095***	-0.045***	-0.045***
18-24	-	(0.009)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)
25-34	-	-0.045***	-0.037***	-0.015**	-0.015**
25-34	-	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
35-44	-	-0.033***	-0.024***	-0.017***	-0.017***
35-44	-	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
55-64	-	0.048***	0.017**	0.010	0.010
55-64	-	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)
65+	-	0.085***	0.026***	0.014*	0.014*
65+	-	(0.008)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Female	-	-0.019***	0.012***	0.015***	0.015***
Female	-	(0.004)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)
Racial Minority	-	-0.066***	-0.053***	-0.042***	-0.042***
Racial Minority	-	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Other Language	-	0.006	0.022*	0.019	0.019
Other Language	-	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Foreign Born	-	-0.035***	-0.031***	-0.028***	-0.028***
Foreign Born	-	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Prairies	-	0.033***	0.027***	0.024***	0.024***
Prairies	-	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
BC	-	-0.002	0.006	0.010	0.010
BC	-	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Atlantic	-	-0.025**	-0.001	-0.002	-0.002
Atlantic	-	(0.008)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Territories	-	-0.067**	-0.051*	-0.053**	-0.053**
Territories	-	(0.023)	(0.021)	(0.020)	(0.020)
Quebec	-	-0.003	0.014**	0.017***	0.017***
Quebec	-	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Low Education	-	-0.086***	-0.042***	-0.039***	-0.038***
Low Education	-	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
High Education	-	0.041***	0.005	0.005	0.005
High Education	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Low Income	-	-0.060***	-0.034***	-0.017**	-0.018**
Low Income	-	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)
High Income	-	0.042***	0.018***	0.012**	0.012**
High Income	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Unemployed	-	-0.030*	-0.024*	-0.017	-0.017
Unemployed	-	(0.012)	(0.011)	(0.011)	(0.011)
Student	-	0.031**	0.010	0.016	0.016
Student	-	(0.012)	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Retired	-	0.004	0.005	0.006	0.006
Retired	-	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
Caregiver	-	-0.049***	-0.033**	-0.029**	-0.029**
Caregiver	-	(0.012)	(0.011)	(0.011)	(0.011)
Other	-	-0.029**	-0.034***	-0.012	-0.012
Other	-	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Not Married	-	-0.026***	-0.021***	-0.018***	-0.018***
Not Married	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Moved	-	-0.034***	-0.031***	-0.011*	-0.011*
Moved	-	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Interest in Politics	-	-	0.329***	0.267***	0.267***
Interest in Politics	-	-	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Duty	-	-	0.244***	0.219***	0.219***
Duty	-	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Party ID	-	-	0.067***	0.038***	0.038***
Party ID	-	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Register	-	-	-	-0.125***	-0.125***
Register	-	-	-	(0.006)	(0.006)
Decision	-	-	-	-0.040***	-0.040***
Decision	-	-	-	(0.002)	(0.002)
Polling Station	-	-	-	-0.084***	-0.084***
Polling Station	-	-	-	(0.003)	(0.003)
Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-0.049***	-0.049***
Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	(0.004)	(0.004)
NEET # Register	-	-	-	-	0.002
NEET # Register	-	-	-	-	(0.022)
NEET # Decision	-	-	-	-	-0.020
NEET # Decision	-	-	-	-	(0.013)
NEET # Polling Station	-	-	-	-	0.023
NEET # Polling Station	-	-	-	-	(0.020)
NEET # Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-	-0.010
NEET # Casting a Ballot	-	-	-	-	(0.021)
Constant	0.834***	0.853***	0.403***	0.553***	0.552***
Constant	(0.002)	(0.006)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)
Observations	39285	39285	39285	39285	39285
R²	0.006	0.072	0.240	0.297	0.297

Standard errors in parentheses
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

Resource Centre

The Burden of Voting in the 2019 Canadian Federal Election

Appendix F